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This bundle consists of two books. To know more about each individual title, click on the images below:Comparative Aesthetics Indian and WesternComparative Aesthetics Volume IComparative Aesthetics: Volume II Comparative Aesthetics Volume I: Indian Aesthetics foreword I had the pleasure of examining Dr. K. C. Pandey’s Thesis on Comparative Aesthetics for the D. Litt. degree of the’ Lucknow University and I recommended the award of the degree. His work deals with a ralatively unexplored section of lndian thought and his handling of the original sources and sympathetic interpretation of Aesthetic doctrines are remarkable. No student of Indian Aesthetics can afford to neglect this important work. When the projected second and third volumes appear, Dr. Pandey would have done work of an enduring character. Introduction to The First Edition The following pages fulfil the promise, made to the reader in the Introduction to my Abhinavagupta: An Historical and Philosophical Study. Here the word ‘Aesthe- tics’ stands for ‘Science and Philosophy of Fine Art’, -For, the texts, on the basis of which ‘Indian Aesthetics’ is presented in the following pages, have approached the problem from both, the technical and the philosophical points of view. Here the problem of aesthetics is studied from the points of view of the dramaturgists and the poeticians. Although the School of Aesthetics, represented by Bharata and Abhinavagupta, regards all other arts, whether fine or mechanical, as auxiliaries to the dramatic art, yet the authorities on two arts, (i) Music and (ii) Architecture, assert the independence of these two fine arts in – giving rise to aesthetic experience. Thus, in India, there are three schools of the Philosophy of Fine Art: (i) Rasa-Brahma-Vada, (ii) Nada-Brahma-Vada and (iii) Vastu-Brahma- Vada. The latter two will be dealt with in a subsequent volume on the subject. In this volume also, as in the case of the previous, Sanskrit texts have been studied from the historical and the philosophical points of view. It is primarily concerned with the presentation of Abhinavagupta’s Theory of Aesthetics against the background of the History of Aesthetic Thought in India and in proper setting of the system of the monistic Saiva Philosophy of Kashmir, as propounded by him in his two famous and voluminous works, (i) Isvara Pratyabhijna VimarsinI and (ii) Isvara Pratyabhijna Vivrti Vimarsini The latter’ work is a commentary by Abhinavagupta on Utpalacarya’s own commentary on his own Isvara Pratyabhijna Karika. It was available only in MSS. at the time when the present work was undertaken, though its publication has recently been completed by the Research .Department of Kashmir. But the original commentary of Utpalacarya seems to be irrecoverably lost. For, not only my search for this valuable work in private and •public collections of M SS. all over India has failed to trace it out but also that of the Research Department of Kashmir, with all the resources of Kashmir State at its disposal.The published text tallies with MS. No. 464 of 1875-76 in the’ Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Poona, so much so that the same portions are missing in both. In the absence of the original, it iS exceptionally difficult to follow the commentary closely. But Abhinava- gupta’s method of commenting is such as gives to his work some sort of independent value. At the beginning of his commentary on each Karika he gives his own interpre- tation so as to bring out clearly its full meaning. On many . important philosophical points, referred to by Utpalacarya in the course of his lost commentary, he enters into fairly lengthy discussions. Some of these are very important for a proper understanding of his theory of aesthetics. In the present work they have been utilised for the first time. The Abhinava Bharati has not yet been fully published. Only the first two volumes, which cover first 18 Chapters, have been •’brought out by our learned friend, Rama Krishna Kavi. It is the most important and the biggest work on Indian Aesthetics. And without a careful study and thorough understanding of its contents, it is not possible to write on Indian AEsthetics so as to show the jmportance of Abhinavagupta’s Theory of Aethetics.in a comparative light. In this work the whole of the Abhinava Bharati has been used for the first time to solve different problems connected with AEsthetics, such as those of the unities of time, place and action in Sanskrit Drama: and why is there no tragedy in Sanskrit in the strict Shakespearian sense of it. The scholars, who have so far written on Abhinava- gupta’s Theory of AEsthetics, have either completely ignored the philosophical aspect of the problem, as Dr. Sankaran has done in his Some Aspects of Literary Criticism, or have attempted to present it in terms of the Vedanta Philosophy, as has been done by P. Panchapagesa Shastri in his Philosophy of AEsthetic Plasure. Such an attempt is as good as interpreting the AEsthetic Theory of Hegel in terms of the philosophy of Kant, He has, however, followed the tradition, which developed, in ignorance of the philosopby of Abhinavagupta, of interpreting his AEsthetic Theory in terms of the Vedanta, Introduction to The Second Edition I feel greatly encouraged by the demand for the Second Edition of this Volume on Comparative AEsthetics, long before the Second Volume on the subject could appear. I am, therefore, extremely grateful to the readers in general, who took such a keen interest in it; to the professors, who made use of it in teaching the post-graduate courses; to the reviewers, whose valuable appreciations and helpful suggestions drew the attention of scholars to it and to the Universities, which recommended it for Post-graduate study not only in Sanskrit but also in Philosophy. I have utilised the opportunity, offered by the Second Edition, in giving a more complete picture of Indian AEsthe- tics than the one presented in the First Edition by adding Chapters on the history and philosophy of music and architecture, the two arts, which alone, besides poetry, are recognised to be independent or fine in Indian tradition, and, therefore, fall within the purview of a work On Indian aestbetlcs. I have also attempted to tackle some important problems such as the following:- (i) Poetry is the highest form of art: drama is the highest form of poetry: tragedy is the highest form of drama. Why did not the tragic form of drama develop in Sanskrit? (ii) Why is there more dialogue than action in Sanskrit drama? (iii) Did the ancient stage employ curtains; presenting scenes of action such as mountains, palaces and temples, and artistic imitations of inanimate and animate objects such as chariots and horses? (iv)What is the difference between the two experiences, Karune and tragic? The primary aim of the two Volumes, which are before the readers, is a faithful presentation of Indian and Western theories of aesthetics in their proper philosophical setting. ‘Sensitive discussion of Western thought from Indian point of view’; ‘critical interpretation and appre- ciation of the aesthetic thought of the two cultures’; ‘explanation of the points of agreement and difference between them’ and similar other approaches, suggested by learned critics such as Prof. Alexander Sesonske, Prof. G. E. Myers and Prof. Herald Mc Arthy, will engage my attention in the Third Volume. I am extremely grateful to Shri jaykrishna Das Gupta, Secretary, Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series, for his keen personal interest, to Shri Anand Shankar, director, Tara Printing Works, for his careful guidance of the pressmen, to Mr. Aditya Prakash Mishra and to Mrs. Lila Pandey for the valuable assistance in research to complete this work. CONTENTS Introduction to the Second Edition vii Introduction to the First Edition ix List of abbreviations xxxvii CHAPTER I HISTORY OF INDIAN AESTHETICS 1 Preliminary. I The scope 2 Religious origin of drama 3 History and evolution of the dramatic art. 4 Natya Sastra 5 Meaning of Natya Sastra 7 Manu’s attitude towards Natya 10 The aim of the Natya Sastra 12 Moral improvement of the aesthete as an end of dramatic presentation 12 The questions attempted by Bharata in his Natya Sastra 13 Problems of Esthetics solved in the above answers 16 Bird’s-eye view of the Natya Sastra 18 Limitations of the work 19 Rasa as Aesthetic object 20 Importance of Rasa in the eyes of Bharata 20 Constituents of Rasa, the Aesthetic object 21 Explanation of the Technical Terms 22 Vibhava. 24 Two aspects of Vibhava 25 Anubhava 25 Bhava 27 Vyabhicaribhava. 28 Sthayibhava. 29 Importance of Rasa from different points of view 30 Bharata’s conception of Rasa 31 The relation of the constituents of Rasa 31 Omission of the word “Sthayin” in Bharata’s definition of Rasa 32 Aesthetic object not an imitation 33 Distinction of Rasa from Sthayibhava etc. 34 Importance of Rasa in the eyes of Bharata. Another point of view 35 The nature of the Aesthetic object 35 The seat of Rasa 36 From the spectator’s point of view 36 Commentators on the Natya Sastra 38 Bhatta Lollata’s practical point of view 38 Bhatta Lollata’s Theory 40 Its criticism 42 The causes of the misunderstanding 44 Another objection to Bhatta Lollata’s theory 46 Sri Sankuka’s contribution 47 Sri Sankuka’s Psycho-Epistemic approach to the problem of aesthetics 49 Conditions of knowledge 50 Individual soul or subject 51 Manas and senses 52 The object to knowledge (Prameya) 52 Means of knowledge (Pramana) 53 Error or illusion (Vyabhicari Jnana) 54 Doubt (Samsaya) 56 Recognition (Pratyabhijna) 58 Srisankuka’s explanation of the omission of “Sthayin” in Bharata’s definition of Rasa 59 Nature of the inferential judgement 60 Unclassifiability of the recognition in art 60 Recognition in art is not erroneous 61 Aesthetic Judgement not dubious 62 It is not a cognition of similarity 62 Influence of painting on his aesthetic theory 62 Contributions of this theory 63 Its criticism 63 Criticism of the aesthetic judgement 67 Arguments against imitation of Sthayin summarised 68 Criticism of analogy of painted horse 68 Sankhya theory of aesthetics 68 Criticism of the earlier theories 70 Sankhya theory of aesthetics in the Sankhya Karika and the Tattva Kaumudi 70 Intellectual background of Bhatta Nayaka 72 Vedantic tendencies of Bhatta Nayaka 72 Bhatta Nayaka’s criticism of other theories 73 His new technique 74 His basic assumptions 75 Its contribution 76 Vedanta-metaphysics and Ananda 77 Sankhya conception of Bhoga. 78 The process 79 The conception of Bhoga, according to Yoga System 80 Vaisesika conception of Bhoga 80 The criticism of the new technique 80 Bhatta Nayaka’s position explained 81 The New fectors, which influenced Abhinavagupta’s Aesthetics 84 CHAPTER II 86 THE SAIVA BASIS OF ABHINAVA’SAESTHETICS Importance of Abhinavagupta 86 Rational mysticism of Abhinavagupta 87 His idealism 87 Place of other schools of thought in Abhinava’s system 88 Mystic conception of the Absolute (Anuttara) 88 The impurities of the soul 89 Spiritual discipline for freedom from impurities 90 Background of his metaphysics 91 Rationalistic conception of the Absolute 93 Concrete monism of the Saiva 97 Voluntarism of the Saiva 97 Abhasavada 101 The category of Sakti (consciousness) as Camatkara 103 The context of the problems of Camatkara 104 Saiva conception of Bhoga 110 The Absolute in the context of “Bhoga” 110 The individual subjects 111 The qualities of individual subjects 112 Power and quality distinguished 112 Sattva, Rajas and Tamas and pleasure, pain and senselessness 114 Qualities of individual subject and Bhoga 116 The conclusions 116 Limitations of individual subject 117 Kala (Limited power of action) 117 Vidya (Limited power of knowledge) 118 Raga (General objective desire) 120 Niyati (Subjection to causal law) 121 Kala (Time) 122 Time as a standard of measure 122 Levels of experience 124 Subject in deep sleep (Sunya Pramata) 125 Inconsistency of Hegel 129 Sunya Pramata of Abhinava 130 Apavedya Susupta and Turiya differentiated 133 Distinction between Turiya and Turiyatita 134 Savedya Susupta and Prana Pramata 134 Aesthetic experience from sense level to objectless level 136 Meaning of Rasa 142 Epistemic technique of Abhasavada 144 Unchanging nature of the Abhasa 148 Time and space as the basis of particularity 148 The implication of universalisation (Sadharanikarana) according to Abhasavada 149 Katharic level in the light of epistemic theory of Abhasavada. 150 CHAPTER III ABHINAVAGUPTA’S THEORY OF AESTHETICS 151 Kathartic level 151 Triadic relation 151 Constituents of the aesthetic object as a configuration 154 The essential nature of the aesthetic object as revealed by psychological analysis 156 Dramatic presentation is not an illusory object 158 Is aesthetic object a “reflection” (Pratibimba) ? 159 It is not a partial representation 159 Aesthetic object from spectator’s point of view 160 Unworldly nature of the aesthetic object 161 The constituents of aesthetic personality 162 (I) Taste or Rasikatva 162 (II) Sahrdayatva or Aesthetic Susceptibility 162 (III) Power of Visualisation 163 (IV) Intellectual background 164 (V) Contemplative habit (Bhavana or Carvana) 164 (VI) Psycho-physical condition 165 (VII) Capacity to identify 165 Aestheti attitude 166 From sense-level to self-forgetfulness 167 From self-forgetfulness to identification 168 Process of identification 168 Philosophical explanation of elimination of time etc. 171 From identification to imagination 173 The development of aesthetic image 174 From imagination to emotion 174 From emotion to complete Katharsis 175 The source of terror 177 Impediments to aesthetic experience 178 1. Inability to get at the meaning 178 2, 3. Subjective and objective limitations of time and space 179 4. The influence of personal joys and sorrows. 179 5. Lack of clarity due to insufficient stimulus 179 6. Subordination of the principal 179 7. Dubiousness of the presentation 180 The conclusion 180 Aesthetic experience not truly emotive 181 Abhinavagupta’s explanation of the omission “Sthayin” in Bharata’s definition of Rasa 183 Aesthetic experience from drama and poetry. 185 Aesthetic experience possible from even hearing the recitation of drama 186 CHAPTER IV TYPES OF RASA 188 Different opinions on types of Rasa 188 Does Bhavabhuti admit Karuna to be the only Rasa ? 188 Bhanudatta’s approach to the problem of types of Rasa 192 Does Bhoja admit Srngara to be the only Rasa ? 193 His conception of Srngara 194 Rasa and Bhava distinguished 198 Aesthetic experience 198 The process 200 Three stages of Srngara 201 The reply 201 Dhananjaya’s approach 201 Abhinavagupta’s approach to the problem of types of Rasa 202 Aesthetic experience of love (Srngara) 205 The meaning of Srngara 205 Derivation of Srngara 206 Love, the basic emotion of Srngara 206 The process in the rise of aesthetic experience of love (Srngara) 208 Aesthetic experience of anger (Raudra) 210 Aesthetic experience of enthusiasm (Vira) 212 Aesthetic experience of disgust (Bibhatsa) 212 Bibhatsa in relation to Moksa 213 Aesthetic experience of laughter (Hasya). 213 Aesthetic experience of grief (Karuna) 215 Karuna and Vipralambha Srngara distinguished 216 Srisankuka’s conception of Karuna 217 Its criticism 218 Abhinavagupta’s view of Karuna 218 Aesthetic experience of wonder (Adbhutarasa). 219 Santa Rasa 219 Dhananjaya and Abhinavagupta on Santa Rasa 220 The text of the Natya Sastra 221 Evidence of the Abhinava Bharati 222 Opposition to Santa on textual basis 223 Its criticism 224 Opposition to Santa independently of the text 224 Opposition on the basis of the indirect evidence of Bharata 225 Its criticism 225 Semi-textual opposition to the semi-textual exponents of Santa 226 Its criticism by Abhinava’s predecessors. 227 Criticism of the above 228 Expositions of Santa on the basis of indirect evidence of Bharata 229 Nirveda as Sthayin of Santa 229 Its criticism 230 Philosophical conception of Vairagya and its relation to self-realisation (Tattvajnana) Para or higher Vairagya. 234 Relation between Nirveda and Tattvajnana in the light of the Nyaya system 234 Dhananjaya on Nirveda as Sthayin of Santa 235 Any one of the eight accepted Sthayins as the Sthayin of Santa 236 All the eight together as Sthayin of Santa 237 The view on Santa with slight difference from that of Abhinavagupta 237 Dhananjaya on Sama as Sthayin of Santa 237 Additional reason for unpresentability of Sama, 238 The view of Santa based on another conception of Sama 239 Abhinavagupta’s theory of Santa 239 Santa in practical life 241 The hero of Santa Rasa 241 The self as the Sthayin of Santa 242 Why is Tattvajnana (Sama) mentioned separately ? 243 Why does Bharata use the word Sama and not Tattvajnana? 244 Other constituents of Santa. 245 Other Sthayins in the context of Santa. 245 Discussion on Rasa in the Nagananda 246 Manuscript authority 249 The nature of aesthetic experience of Santa 249 Division of Rasas into two classes 250 Basic and dependent Rasas 252 Another kind of causality of one Rasa to the rise of another, 254 Identical natural tendency necessary for aesthetic experience 255 CHAPTER V ABHINAVAGUPTA’S THEORY OF MEANING 257 Language and aesthetic configuration 257 History of Dhvani 258 The presence of the suggested meaning in the earliest poetic production 260 The probable time of the discovery of the spiritual meaning 264 The chief exponent of the spiritual meaning of language or Dhvani 264 The theory of meaning before the acceptance of the theory of Dhvani 267 An illustration of Dhvani 269 Can Laksana explain the negative meaning conceived by hearer on hearing the positive statement under discussion ? 271 Unsoundness of the opponent’s position 271 Review of the position of the opponents of the theory of suggested meaning 272 The views of the opponents of the theory of suggested meaning summarized. 275 The arguments of the opponents of the theory of Dhvani 277 The position of the exponeut explained 280 The various meanings of the word Dhvani and their origin. 281 Abhinava’s conception of poetry 283 The position of the Laksanavadin explained 284 Laksanavadin’s position criticised 285 The process analysed. 286 Another conception of Laksana and its criticism 287 Laksanalaksana as substitute for Dhvani 289 Laksanalaksana criticised 290 Criticism of Laksana summarised 291 The Anvitabhidhana theory of the Prabhakaras. 291 Criticism of the Anvitabhidhanavada 292 Necessity of admission of the instrumentality of consciousness of one meaning in the rise of another 294 Bhatta Nayaka’s explanation of the consciousness of the suggested meaning and its criticism 296 Dhvani distinguished from figures of speech, 298 Figure Samasokti defined 298 The distinctive spheres of Upama and Rasavat Alankara on the one hand and that of Resadhvani on the other. 301 Embellishments and aesthetic presentation 303 The psychological basis of the classification of the suggested meaning 304 Vastudhvani. 305 Alankaradhvani 305 Rasadhvani 306 Bhavadhvani 306 Avivaksita vakya and vivaksitanyaparavacya 307 The situation 308 Arthantara Sankramitavacya 309 The situation 309 Atyantatiraskrtavacya 311 Sabdasaktyudbhava 312 Arthasaktyudbhava 314 The situation 315 Classification of the suggested meaning, according to the means of suggestion 315 Suggestive poetry distinguished from unsuggestive. 316 The distinction of the suggestive poetry from the embellished 317 Dhvani Chart 319 CHAPTER VI MAHIMA BHATTA’S CRITICISM OF DHVANI AND A REPLY Dhvani as a controversial problem 320 An introduction to Mahima Bhatta 320 The purpose of the book 323 His attitude towards Dhvanikara, 324 Kashmir Saiva tendencies of Mahima Bhatta 325 (I) His reference to Para 325 (II) His reference to the Saiva theory of Abhasavada 325 (III) His admission of the Saiva theory of Abhasavada. 325 (IV) His reference to the causal theory of Kashmir Saivaism 333 His theory of aesthetics 335 Charm in poetic presentation 335 His conception of rasa as a reflection of a Sthayin, 336 His answers to the objections against the inferential theory of aesthetics 336 His advance on Srisankuka 338 His conception of Camatkara 339 The background of the theory of meaning 340 Mahima’s approach to the problem of meaning 341 His division of words 342 His reference to and rejection of the view that function is the basis of the use of a noun for an object. 343 His division of meaning 345 Anumeyartha 347 His conception of Kavya in the context of the criticism of Bhatta Tauta’s definition of it. 347 His conception of Gamyagamakabhava 349 Ananda Vardhana’s points of view 349 His criticism of the theory of Dhvani 350 His refutation of other powers of word than the conventional 351 (a) His criticism of Laksana 352 (b) His criticism of the Tatparyasakti of words 356 (c) His criticism of Abhivyakti 356 Dhvanivadin’s position explained 361 The defects in the definition of Dhvani Kavya 362 (I) Criticism of the adjunct of ‘Artha’. 363 Dhavanivadin’s position explained 364 His criticism of the word ‘Artha’ in the definition of Dhvani. 364 (II) Criticism of the use of the word ‘Sabda’ 365 Dhvanivadin’s position explained. 367 (III) Criticism of the adjunct of ‘Sabda’ 367 (IV) Criticism of the masculine gender in the pronoun ‘Tam’ 368 (V) Criticism of the dual in ‘Vyanktah’ 368 (VI) Criticism of the use of ‘Va’ 369 (VII) His criticism of the suggestive power of word, indicated by ‘Vi-anj’ in the definition 369 (VIII) Criticism of the use of the word ‘Dhvani’ for poetic composition, 371 (IX) His criticism of Ananda Vardhava’s conception of the particular Kavya (Kavyavisesa) 373 Dhvanivadin’s position explained 375 (X) Criticism of the use of the subject of the predicate ‘Kathitah’ 376 The necessity of inclusion of ‘Abhidha’ in the definition 376 Dhvanivadin’s position explained 377 His conception of incongruity (Anaucitya) 378 His criticism of Kuntaka’s theory of Vakrokti 381 His criticism and rejection of some of the types of Dhvani 381 His criticism of Vastu and Alankara Dhvani 381 His criticism of the division of Kavya into Dhvani and Gunibhuta Vyangya. 382 Ruyyaka 383 CHAPTER VII THE TECHNIQUE OF SANSKRIT DRAMA 385 What does the dramatist present ? 387 Incongruity 387 Action in Sanskrit Drama, 389 Rules of dramatization and dramatic genius 390 Method of dramatisation 393 Presentable and unpresentable in drama 396 Unities of time, place and action, 397 Difference between Sanskrit and English dramas in respect of action and emotion. 399 Analysis of the main plot. 403 Absence of tragedy in Sanskrit literature explained 405 (i) The traditional conception of the hero of drama. 405 (ii) The triadic relation 407 The conception of the five stages elaborated 408 The beginning (Prarambha) 410 The effort (Yatna). 411 The effort situation 412 The height (Praptyasa). 413 Praptyasa situation 414 The consequence (Niyatapti) 418 The close (Phalagama) 420 The means to the end (Arthaprakrti) 420 The seed (Bija) and its psychological necessity 421 The recollection of the motive force (Bindu) 425 Sub-plot (Pataka). 427 Minor plot (Prakari) 428 The resources (Karya) 429 Sandhis (Parts) in Sanskrit drama 430 Mukha Sandhi (Birth of the seed) 432 Pratimukha (Opening of the seed) 432 Garbha 432 Avamarsa 432 Nirvahana (Fruition) 436 The Sandhyanga defined 437 The general purpose of Sandhyangas 437 The purposes of Sandhyangas from the point of view of dramatist, 438 Freedom in the use of Sandhyangas 439 CHAPTER VIII TYPES OF DRAMA 441 Two main types of drama 442 (1) Nataka 442 The name “Nataka” explained 444 (II) Prakarana 444 (i) Subject-matter 444 (ii) The hero and his helpers 445 (iii) The heroine 446 (iv) Subdivisions of Prakarana 446 (III) Samavakara 446 Duration of each act 447 Meaning of Samavakara 448 Three kinds of flight, deception and love 448 The absence of the graceful action in Samavakara explained 448 (IV) Ihamrga 449 (V) Dima 450 (VI) Vyayoga 452 (VII) Utsrstikanka 452 (VIII) Prahasana 453 (IX) Bhana 454 (X) Bithi. 455 Aesthetic configurations (Rasas) presentable in different types of drama 455 CHAPTER IX ESSENTIALS OF SANSKRIT DRAMATIC PRESENTATION 457 Meaning of Vrtti 458 Action in poetic composition 459 Dramatic action distinguished from the worldly. 460 The origin of different forms of action. 461 Employment of different forms of action in the presentation of Rasas 464 Difference of opinion on the number of forms of action (Vrtti) 464 Consciousness of fruit (Phalasamvitti Vrtti) as a form of action admitted by Udbhata 465 Its criticism. 466 The view of the followers of Udbhata on forms of action (Vrtti) 467 Abhinavagupta’s criticism 468 Bhoja’s positioning regard to the number of Vrttis 469 Difference of opinion on the/use of different forms of Vrtti 474 Pravrtti or local usages 477 The relation between Vrtti and Pravrtti 479 Acting or Abhinaya 479 Change of personality in acting 481 Four types of acting (Abhinaya) 482 (I) Physical gesture (Angikabhinaya) 482 (II) Verbal acting or histrionic representation in words. (Vacikabhinaya) 483 (III) Gesture that flows from mental state (Sattvikabhinaya) 484 (IV) Costume and make-up (Aharyabhinaya) 484 Difference of opinion on the presentation of death on the stage. 485 Hero’s death never to be presented in any way. 487 Restriction about the number of characters on the stage 487 Dramatic presentation in the open air and in the theatre. 487 CHAPTER X AESTHETIC CURRENTS IN POETICS. 489 The dramatic and the poetic experiences differentiated 490 Bhamahs 491 Bhamaha’s conception of poetry 492 His conception of poetic experience 493 Bhamaha’s conception of gunas 494 The poetic qualities in the eyes of Bhamaha 495 Bhamaha’s indebtedness to Bharata in the conception of Vakrokti 495 Difference between Laksana and Alankara 497 Laksana defined 498 Difference between Bharata and Bhamaha 499 Other conceptions of Vakrokti 500 His scanty treatment 500 Dandin’s conception of poetry 501 Difference of opinion on the qualities of poetry explained 502 Vamana’s conception of poetry 505 Vamana’s contribution 507 Udbhata’s position. 508 CHAPTER XI ART OF MUSIC (SANGITA-KALA) 511 Music and poetry 511 History and evolution of the art of music 512 Samavedic Schools of Music 513 The texts of the Kauthuma School 513 The relative chronology of the Samavedic texts. 514 Indication of the pitch of syllable in the Kauthuma tradition of the Sama Veda 515 Drone tone 516 Musical and poetical metre 516 Changes in the chant introduced by Udgata 517 The relation between the spoken and the chanted Vedic language 517 Samavedic melodization 518 Evolution of the number of tones 519 Gandharvaveda, the subsidiary Veda (Upaveda) of the Sama Veda. 521 Progress of music reflected in the Brahmanas 522 Development of the Samavedic Music in the Sutra period 525 Fixation of interval. 526 Seven Notes in the Paniniya Siksa 527 Nandikesvara’s conception of seven notes and three pitches 527 Disappearance of distinction between the Samavedic and the classical notes 531 Samavedic and classical music 532 Writers on classical music before Bharata 533 Bharata and his contemporaries 535 (1) Kasyapa 535 Did Bharata know the Ragas ? 536 (2) Sardula 538 (3) Dattila 538 Successors of Bharata 538 Utpalacarya 539 Authors of independent works on music after Bharata 540 Abhinavagupta 541 Jayadeva 542 Sarngadeva, the author of the Sangita Ratnakara 542 Mohamedan influence on Indian Music 543 Gopala Nayaka 544 Commentators on the Sangita Ratuakara. 545 (1) Sirhha Bhupala 545 (2) Kallinatha, 546 Locana Kavi 547 Ramamatya 547 Gwaliar School of Music 549 Music during the reigu of Akbar 550 Suppression of Indian music by Aurangzeb. 551 Sangita Ratnakara Vyakhya, Setu. 552 Rise of Southern and Northern Schools of Indian Music. 553 The Influence of the Mela System on North Indian Music. 555 CHAPTER XII PHILOSOPHY OF MUSIC 556 Recognition of the spiritual value of music in the Chandogya Upanisad 557 Abhinavagupta’s Philosophy of Music 557 Experience of Ananda at the transcendental level of aesthetic experience from music 561 Metaphysical basis of the musical notes 562 Pasyanti and musical notes 564 Identification with Para-Nada in musical experience 564 Notes, produced by musical instruments and Madhyama, 565 Subtle and transcendental forms of Pasyanti, Madhyama and Vaikhari. 565 Harmonious unity of notes as the essential of charm in music 566 Yoga and Nada-Brahmavada. 566 Importance of the Cakras for music. 569 Mental concentration on Nada as a means to liberation 569 Ahata Nada as a means to liberation 570 Nada-Brahma-Vada of Sarngadeva 571 Nagesa Bhatta on the origin of musical notes 572 Philosophy of music in the light of the Siddhanta Saiva Dualism 575 Bindu And Nada 576 CHAPTER XIII ART OF ARCHITECTURE OR VASTUKALA 579 Meaning of Vastu 579 Presupposition of Vastu Sastra 579 Division of literary sources of information on architecture 580 Non-technical references to architecture 581 The sources of technical information on architecture 582 1. Atharvaveda and Sutras 582 2. Architectural material in works on subjects other than architecture 583 3. Saiva tradition. 585 4. Brahma tradition 587 Painting 589 Sculpture 591 5. Maya tradition 591 Uncertainty about the dates of books on architecture 593 Spread of Indian Culture and architectural tradition 594 Wood, the earliest material for the construction of human dwelling 596 The relation between building and its inmate 597 Style as the basis of classification of architectural work, 600 Another basis of classification of Indian architecture 600 The relation of styles and enshrined deities 601 The principle of harmony as the basis of different conceptions of pillar 602 Works of architecture most enduring 602 Sculpture and painting as dependent arts 603 Philosophy of Architecture or Vastu-Brahma-Vada 609 Aesthetic experience from architecture 609 Indian Philosophy of fine Art 611 APPENDIX The Textual Authority indicated by foot-notes 617 Index 717 Sample Pages Comparative Aesthetics: Western Aesthetics – Volume IIIntroduction (I- Edition)A careful study of the asthetic theories of the Western thinkers from Sophist Gorgias ( about 470 B. C. ) and Socrates” (469-399 B. C.) to Croce ( 1866-1952) produces an impre- ssion on the mind of one who is familiar with Indian AEsthe- tics that the East and the West have thought on the problem of the beautiful in ways which have marked similarity and. therefore, there is ample scope for a comparative approach to the problem of esthetics. Such an impression has been respon- sible for my thesis “Comparative .AEsthetics”.To prove the correctness of the thesis, this Volume presents the imitative, hedonistic, pedagogic, kathartic, -mystic, inte- llectualistic, emotive, transcendental, absolutist, intuitive and other allied theories of art generally in a chronological order. grouping together the thinkers of a particular country; shows how each resthetic thinker influenced his successors; states in the beginning of each chapter the points of similarity bet. ween the aesthetic thought of a Western thinker and that of an Indian; and in the concluding chapter gives a summary of comparative approach.A detailed comparison of Western esthetic thought, past and contemporary, with Indian, is the subject-matter of the Third Volume, Indian and Western .AEsthetics .AEsthetics is a part of philosophy. The majority of estheticians have been influenced in their theories of art by their metaphysical. epistemic, psychological and ethical views. The relevant aspects of the philosophy of every important thinker, who propounds his own .system or follows an already existing school of thought, therefore, have been given as the background of his asthetic theory and it has been shown how he was influenced in his theory of art by his general philosophical outlook.In the present work also as in the earlier, fidelity to the original texts has been the guiding principle. In order to convince the reader of this fact, foot-notes have been given indicating the texts on the basis of which the statements have been made in the body of the book. The foot-notes are of two kinds, with asterisks and without them. The former refer to the Sanskrit texts, the quotations from which are given in Appendix A. The latter refer to the texts in or translations into English. The original texts of many Western aesthetic thinkers have been accessible to me in their English translations only, as I do not know all the languages, in which they were written by their respective authors. The reader, therefore, I hope, will excuse me for any inaccuracy that may be due to this short-coming.The present volume, like the earlier, has benefited very much from the learned suggestions of Dr. S. Radhakrishnan, the Vice-President of India. It is, therefore, my sacred duty to acknowledge respectfully my deep debt of gratitude to him.My sincere thanks are due to Professor N. K. Sidhanta for help in dealing with Aristotle ; to Professor E. Ahmad Shah for going through the typescript and giving many help- ful suggestions; to Professors K. A. S. Iyer, Kali Prasad, A. V. Rao and Dr. Raj Narain for occasional help-; to my research assistants, Mr. Aditya Prakash Misra, Mr. A. K. Banerjee and Mrs. Lila Pandey. for their wholehearted devotion to work; and above all to my late learned guide, Professor N. N. Sengupta, who helped me in understanding such difficult texts as Kant’s Three Critiques. Introduction (2 Edition)It is the greatest satisfaction of my lift that my works in the field of Comparative AEsthetics and Saiva Philo- sophy have aroused such an interest in the scholars, both in India and abroad, that the second editions of all of them are in demand. The second editions of Abhinavagupta: An Historical and Philosophical Study and Comparative AEsthetics Vol. 1, Indian AEsthetics, have already been published. I am very happy to be able to present to my Learned readers the second edition of Comparative AEsthetics Vol. II, Western AEsthetics.Earlier, aesthetics was recognised to be exclusively a subject of the West. Histories of AEsthetics, written by Bernard Bosanquet, Benedetto Croce, and Gilbert and Kuhn, confined themselves to the presentation of aesthetic currents in the West only. They completely ignored oriental easthetics; probably because they thought that such a subject does not exist in the East.Internationalism in (aesthetics, however, made a start with the first International Congress of AEsthetics., held in 1913 in Berlin. But it was confined to the nations in the West. The gap between the occidental and the oriental (aesthetics remained as ever before. About this time scholars in the East, particularly in India, China and Japan, and orientalists in the West started writing on oriental arts and aesthetics in English and other European languages. Their works made the Western estheticians recognise that “Oriental art contains important values not attained by art in the West”; (Thomas Munro : Oriental AEsthetics-. P. 13) led to the discovery of important insights in oriental aesthetics, applicable to art and aesthetic experience everywhere and made many Western artists and critics believe that the Western art has much to learn from Eastern methods.Names of some of the important orientalists, whose writings on arts and aesthetics have led •to the recognition of oriental aesthetics, aesthetic currents in India, China and Japan, are as follows 🙁 i ) Writers on Indian arts and aesthetics:Stella Kamrisch, R. Gnoli, S. K. De, G. C. O. Haas, Clay Lancaster, Anand Coomaraswamy, Philip Rawson, P. J. Chowdhury, O. C. Gangoly, V. Raghavan, Benjamin Rowland, Radha Kamal Mukerjee, Paul Mus, Alice Boner, A. L. Basham, Manomohan Ghosh and K. C. Pandey . on whose contribution to esthetics Professor Thomas Munro in his Oreintal AEstheties ( P. 29 ) makes the following observation :-“The most comprehensive publication by a single author on the combined field of Indian and Western aesthetics, as far as I know, is the monumental series of volumes by Professor K. C. Pandey of Lucknow University on Compa- rative .AEsthetics. Volume I, recently enlarged in a second edition, is on Indian .AEsthetics; Volume II on Western AEsthetics. Dr. Pandey displays in Volume II a consider- able knowledge of European Philosophy from Plato through Croce.”( ii) Writers on Japanese arts and aesthetics:M. Ueda, D. T. Suzuki. Shin’ichi Hisamatsu,( iii ) Writers on Chinese arts and aesthetics: Osvald Siren, A. C. Soper, Wen Fong, E. R. Hughes, Achilles Fang.Now esthetics is not regarded as an exclusively Western subject, but as a world-wide subject. And a plan is being sponsored by UNESCO to bring out Twenty Volumes pre- senting different esthetic currents including Russian, Japa- nese, Chinese, Indian etc. under the common title “Sources of AEsthetics”. Porfessor Jan Aler of the University of Amsterdam is the general editor of this series and I am contributing to it a volume on Indian AEsthetics.I must apologise to my learned readers for my inability to make a substantial addition to the present edition because of my preoccupation with the aforesaid work, a typescript of which has already been submitted to the general editor; and the Svatantrakala Sastra Vol. II, Pascatya, which. I hope will be published soon to meet the demand of Indian readers for a book, presenting the aesthetic currents of the West, in Hindi, the national language of the country .I am very happy to see that the Abhinavagupta Institute of AEsthetics and Saiva Philosophy, Lucknow University, is beginning to realise its aim of publishing a series of volumes on the two subjects in which it specialises and that this work of mine is the first contribution to it.My most sincere thanks are due to Professors S. Radha- krishnan, I. A. Richards, L. Renou, Charles Morris, J, Brough and to the editors of the Journals-the Philosophy and Phenomenological Research, University of Buffalo, U. S. A., the Journal of AEsthetics and Art Criticism, Western Reserve University, U. S. A., the Visvabharati Quarterly, Santini- ketan, the Calcutta Review, the Annals af Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Poona, whose considered opinions on and learned reviews of the first edition of this book drew the attention of the lovers of AEsthetics to it : to Mrs. Lila Pandey for her selfless help in seeing this edition through the press: to Sri Mohan Das Gupta and Sri Bitthal Das Gupta, Directors, Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series,for thier keen interest and careful guidance of the pressmen,: to the University Grants Commission, the U: P. Government and the Lucknow University for the much needed help to establish the Abhi- navagupta Institute of AEsthetics and Saiva Philosophy so as to enable it to start publication of the results oj the research that is carried on here. CONTENTS Introduction to the Second EditioniiiiIntroduction to the First EditionvList of abbreviationsviiCHAPTER I. Background of Aesthetic Theory of Plato1CHAPTER II Rigoristic Hedonism of Plato11CHAPTER III Pedagogism of Aristotle26CHAPTER IV Dramatic Technique91CHAPTER V Mysticism of Plotinus in the Context of Aesthetics112CHAPTER VI Aesthetic Currents in Early Christian Era, Ages and Renaissance164CHAPTER VII Intellectualistic Aesthetics of Descartes174CHAPTER VIII British Aesthetic Thinkers224CHAPTER IX Aesthetic Currents in Germany277CHAPTER X Transcendental Aesthetics of Kant292CHAPTER XI Absolutist Aesthetics of Hegel357CHAPTER XII Voluntaristic Esthetics of Schopenhauer465CHAPTER XIII Intuitive Aesthetics of Croce485CHAPTER XIV Comparative Survey of Indian and Western Aesthetics512APPENDIX A717The Textual Authority indicated by foot-notes marked with asterisks570Index579 Sample Pages
